Summary of Steven Raphael’s "Incarceration and Prisoner Reentry in the United States"

Introduction

Raphael (2011) focused on the numerous variables and statistics that are associated with American prisons and inmates, as well as the racial and ethnic demographics of inmates and then discussed the burdens that the majority of them face when they re-enter society (pp. 192-195).  Moreover, Raphael (2011) posited how the burdens are usually forever lasting and that many of the former inmates will return to prison because of the punitive mindset that society has and the inability to successfully reintegrate into the community (pp. 208-211).  That is, with the problems of finding stable employment and meeting the norms of society being extremely difficult, there is a high probability that many parolees or former inmates will be unable to transition to non-prison life and thus return to criminal activity or commit technical violations. 

The publication also addressed the increase of the use of incarceration since the 1970s and posited how conservative policy implications have prospered and, in turn, created an exodus of people who entered the prison industrial complex and, as previously mentioned, become stigmatized for the remainder of their lives (Raphael, 2011, pp. 192-193).  Empirical evidence is how Raphael (2011) validated his research and depicts the grim scenarios that many former inmates endure.  Specifically, he used statistics from the Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Prisoner Statistics, Uniform Crime Report, National Corrections Reporting Program, American Community Survey, and other databases, as well as prior scholarly publications, to present the aforementioned burdens that the former incarcerated deal with. 

Respectively, this essay will present basic information in Raphael’s (2011) publication and posit how the publication is merited with its intent.  A conclusion that is based on the requirements of the assignment will be implemented and allow the audience to comprehend the rationale behind the author’s work as well as why the research is worthy of giving significant amounts of attention to the subject by laypeople, professionals, and other scholars. 

Brief Summary of Findings

As previously mentioned, Raphael (2011) posited how there was a significant increase in the incarceration rates that initiated during the 1970s (p. 194).  This rise in the incarceration rates has two plausible catalysts, which are the conservative implementation of drug policies and the general use of deterrence as a method to dissuade people from engaging in criminal activity (Raphael, 2011, pp. 195-197).  Furthermore, Raphael (2011) presents the demographics of inmates and makes it clear that African Americans or people of African descent, especially poorly educated African-orientated males, are more likely to enter the American prison system when compared to other criminal offenders (pp. 197-199).  In a general fashion, Raphael (2011) used empirical evidence (official statistics) that demonstrated how the American correctional systems are housing a large amount of minorities; particularly a lot of racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic minorities (p. 199).  This, in turn, presents how the minorities in this country not only face the harsh reality of being a minority in a free society, but are also targeted and then deemed as expendable by the various criminal justice systems in the country. 

The residual effects of incarceration are also a main theme within Raphael’s (2011) publication.  More specifically, he discussed how many of the inmates and former inmates have young children, poor job skills, difficulties finding employment after release, as well as how they are stereotyped in a negative fashion (Raphael, 2011, pp. 193-210).  These characteristics are variables that Raphael (2011) and many other researchers suggest are the contributing factors for the high recidivism rates and lack of successful reintegration (pp. 193-211).  Additionally, it is suggested that the incarceration of a person has indirect effects on society (Raphael, 2011, pp. 204-211).  For instance, not only is the criminal offender stigmatized with the criminal label, but are also deemed as having less worth in society, which in turn affects their families and other close associates (children, friends, and other family members) (Raphael, 2011, pp. 200-214).  The reality of this is overwhelming and allowed Raphael (2011) to posit some policy implications to counteract the stigmatization and residual effects (pp. 211-214).  Accordingly, the next section of this essay will discuss Raphael’s (2011) findings and how they can be used to implement policies that challenge the current state of the prisoner re-entry services. 

Policies Based on the Findings

Raphael (2011) asserted that conservative and punitive functionality of the current justice system needs to be augmented in order to reduce the recidivism rates and negative effects that a person who has been incarcerated faces (p. 211).  He also suggested that effective social services become a norm and specifically participation in job, educational, housing, and other personal treatment devices so that the former inmates can become productive and contributing members of society (Raphael, 2011, pp. 212-213).  In particular, Raphael (2011) addressed the low amount of financial services that inmates receive and posited that this lone characteristic is a major reason for quick recidivism (p. 213).  More precisely, he also suggested that the lack of programs that are centered on housing and job placement have added to the amount of new offenses and technical violations; which are not a liberal tendency or treatment-associated approach to community corrections (Raphael, 2011, p. 213).

In sum, Raphael (2011) suggested that transitional services take on a more liberal and realistic method as opposed to simply warehousing a large number of people and then releasing them with minimal utilities (pp. 212-213).  Conservative ideologies are discouraged throughout the publication and it is also inferred that they have little practicality in regard to the restoration of the individuals who have been incarcerated (Raphael, 2011, pp. 211-214). These findings ascertain how the current correctional strategies are not working and, in turn, create lifelong clients (offenders) for the criminal justice system to focus on.  Stereotyping a particular group of people for the remainder of their lives is the current relevancy of the justice system in the United States, and the work of Raphael (2011) and many other scholars validate this through empirical and quantitative research. 

Conclusion

Overall, the work of Raphael (2011) posited that the American criminal justice system is targeting a specific group of people as well as forever stigmatizing them in a callous manner.  The plethora of statistics and other research applications verify the assertions that were made in Raphael’s (2011) publication.  Also, the terrible qualities that the American correctional systems participate in can be found in other real-life situations.  That is, when a person does engage in elements of society that would allow for a therapeutic transition they are constantly ridiculed by so-called professionals and other people who work, or want to work, in the criminal justice system, as well many other ordinary civilians.  Having these qualities verifies the many research applications that present the sociopathic tendencies of not only the American criminal justice system, but also the immature and immoral behavior of those who are living in society without the criminal stigmatization. 

As for the policy implications, the liberalism that is presented in Raphael’s (2011) publication presented the notion that they have a more positive impact on the criminal offenders, as well as an entire society, and do have the ability to foster correctional strategies that actually work.  Yet these therapeutic agendas have not been fully deployed in the American culture, which in turn allows for an understanding of why the conservative and punitive approaches have failed and bring more harm than restoration.  Finally, the impacts of incarceration on an offender’s family and close affiliations are extremely detrimental.  The residual effects of incarceration permeate in other elements of society and a person’s family.  According to Raphael (2011), using deterrence and punitive administrations is definitely creating a massive amount of degradation and will continue unless a different correctional approach is undergone (pp. 211-213). 

Reference

Raphael, S. (2011). Incarceration and prisoner reentry in the United States. The Annals of the

            American Academy of Political and Social Science, 635(192), 195-215. doi:

            10.1177/0002716210393321